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<a name="Miscellaneous-Techniques"></a>
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<a name="Miscellaneous-Techniques-1"></a>
<h3 class="section">19.6 Miscellaneous Techniques</h3>
<a name="index-execution-speed"></a>
<a name="index-speedups"></a>
<a name="index-optimization"></a>

<p>Here are some other ways of improving the execution speed of Octave
programs.
</p>
<ul>
<li> Avoid computing costly intermediate results multiple times.
Octave currently does not eliminate common subexpressions.  Also, certain
internal computation results are cached for variables.  For instance, if
a matrix variable is used multiple times as an index, checking the
indices (and internal conversion to integers) is only done once.

</li><li> Be aware of lazy copies (copy-on-write).
<a name="index-copy_002don_002dwrite"></a>
<a name="index-COW"></a>
<a name="index-memory-management"></a>
When a copy of an object is created, the data is not immediately copied, but
rather shared.  The actual copying is postponed until the copied data needs to
be modified.  For example:

<div class="example">
<pre class="example">a = zeros (1000); # create a 1000x1000 matrix
b = a; # no copying done here
b(1) = 1; # copying done here
</pre></div>

<p>Lazy copying applies to whole Octave objects such as matrices, cells,
struct, and also individual cell or struct elements (not array
elements).
</p>
<p>Additionally, index expressions also use lazy copying when Octave can
determine that the indexed portion is contiguous in memory.  For example:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">a = zeros (1000); # create a 1000x1000 matrix
b = a(:,10:100);  # no copying done here
b = a(10:100,:);  # copying done here
</pre></div>

<p>This applies to arrays (matrices), cell arrays, and structs indexed
using &lsquo;<samp>()</samp>&rsquo;.  Index expressions generating comma-separated lists can also
benefit from shallow copying in some cases.  In particular, when <var>a</var> is a
struct array, expressions like <code>{a.x}, {a(:,2).x}</code> will use lazy
copying, so that data can be shared between a struct array and a cell array.
</p>
<p>Most indexing expressions do not live longer than their parent
objects.  In rare cases, however, a lazily copied slice outlasts its
parent, in which case it becomes orphaned, still occupying unnecessarily
more memory than needed.  To provide a remedy working in most real cases,
Octave checks for orphaned lazy slices at certain situations, when a
value is stored into a &quot;permanent&quot; location, such as a named variable or
cell or struct element, and possibly economizes them.  For example:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">a = zeros (1000); # create a 1000x1000 matrix
b = a(:,10:100);  # lazy slice
a = []; # the original &quot;a&quot; array is still allocated
c{1} = b; # b is reallocated at this point
</pre></div>

</li><li> Avoid deep recursion.
Function calls to m-file functions carry a relatively significant overhead, so
rewriting a recursion as a loop often helps.  Also, note that the maximum level
of recursion is limited.

</li><li> Avoid resizing matrices unnecessarily.
When building a single result matrix from a series of calculations, set the
size of the result matrix first, then insert values into it.  Write

<div class="example">
<pre class="example">result = zeros (big_n, big_m)
for i = over:and_over
  ridx = &hellip;
  cidx = &hellip;
  result(ridx, cidx) = new_value ();
endfor
</pre></div>

<p>instead of
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">result = [];
for i = ever:and_ever
  result = [ result, new_value() ];
endfor
</pre></div>

<p>Sometimes the number of items can not be computed in advance, and
stack-like operations are needed.  When elements are being repeatedly
inserted or removed from the end of an array, Octave detects it as stack
usage and attempts to use a smarter memory management strategy by
pre-allocating the array in bigger chunks.  This strategy is also applied
to cell and struct arrays.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">a = [];
while (condition)
  &hellip;
  a(end+1) = value; # &quot;push&quot; operation
  &hellip;
  a(end) = []; # &quot;pop&quot; operation
  &hellip;
endwhile
</pre></div>

</li><li> Avoid calling <code>eval</code> or <code>feval</code> excessively.
Parsing input or looking up the name of a function in the symbol table are
relatively expensive operations.

<p>If you are using <code>eval</code> merely as an exception handling mechanism, and not
because you need to execute some arbitrary text, use the <code>try</code>
statement instead.  See <a href="The-try-Statement.html#The-try-Statement">The try Statement</a>.
</p>
</li><li> Use <code>ignore_function_time_stamp</code> when appropriate.
If you are calling lots of functions, and none of them will need to change
during your run, set the variable <code>ignore_function_time_stamp</code> to
<code>&quot;all&quot;</code>.  This will stop Octave from checking the time stamp of a
function file to see if it has been updated while the program is being run.
</li></ul>

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