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<h3><a href="index.html">Table Of Contents</a></h3>
<ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">Interpreting Bitstrings</a><ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#bin">bin</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#hex">hex</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#oct">oct</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#uint-uintbe-uintle-uintne">uint / uintbe / uintle / uintne</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#int-intbe-intle-intne">int / intbe / intle / intne</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#float-floatbe-floatle-floatne">float / floatbe / floatle / floatne</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#bytes">bytes</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#ue">ue</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#se">se</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#uie-sie">uie / sie</a></li>
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<div class="section" id="interpreting-bitstrings">
<h1>Interpreting Bitstrings<a class="headerlink" href="#interpreting-bitstrings" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
<p>Bitstrings don’t know or care how they were created; they are just collections of bits. This means that you are quite free to interpret them in any way that makes sense.</p>
<p>Several Python properties are used to create interpretations for the bitstring. These properties call private functions which will calculate and return the appropriate interpretation. These don’t change the bitstring in any way and it remains just a collection of bits. If you use the property again then the calculation will be repeated.</p>
<p>Note that these properties can potentially be very expensive in terms of both computation and memory requirements. For example if you have initialised a bitstring from a 10 GB file object and ask for its binary string representation then that string will be around 80 GB in size!</p>
<p>For the properties described below we will use these:</p>
<div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">BitArray</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'0x123'</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">BitArray</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'0b111'</span><span class="p">)</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="bin">
<h2>bin<a class="headerlink" href="#bin" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
<p>The most fundamental interpretation is perhaps as a binary string (a ‘bitstring’). The <a class="reference internal" href="constbitarray.html#bitstring.Bits.bin" title="bitstring.Bits.bin"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal"><span class="pre">bin</span></code></a> property returns a string of the binary representation of the bitstring. All bitstrings can use this property and it is used to test equality between bitstrings.</p>
<div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bin</span>
<span class="go">'000100100011'</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bin</span>
<span class="go">'111'</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>Note that the initial zeros are significant; for bitstrings the zeros are just as important as the ones!</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="hex">
<h2>hex<a class="headerlink" href="#hex" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
<p>For whole-byte bitstrings the most natural interpretation is often as hexadecimal, with each byte represented by two hex digits.</p>
<p>If the bitstring does not have a length that is a multiple of four bits then an <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#bitstring.InterpretError" title="bitstring.InterpretError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal"><span class="pre">InterpretError</span></code></a> exception will be raised. This is done in preference to truncating or padding the value, which could hide errors in user code.</p>
<div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hex</span>
<span class="go">'123'</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hex</span>
<span class="go">ValueError: Cannot convert to hex unambiguously - not multiple of 4 bits.</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="oct">
<h2>oct<a class="headerlink" href="#oct" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
<p>For an octal interpretation use the <a class="reference internal" href="constbitarray.html#bitstring.Bits.oct" title="bitstring.Bits.oct"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal"><span class="pre">oct</span></code></a> property.</p>
<p>If the bitstring does not have a length that is a multiple of three then an <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#bitstring.InterpretError" title="bitstring.InterpretError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal"><span class="pre">InterpretError</span></code></a> exception will be raised.</p>
<div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">oct</span>
<span class="go">'0443'</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">oct</span>
<span class="go">'7'</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="s1">'0b0'</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">oct</span>
<span class="go">ValueError: Cannot convert to octal unambiguously - not multiple of 3 bits.</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="uint-uintbe-uintle-uintne">
<h2>uint / uintbe / uintle / uintne<a class="headerlink" href="#uint-uintbe-uintle-uintne" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
<p>To interpret the bitstring as a binary (base-2) bit-wise big-endian unsigned integer (i.e. a non-negative integer) use the <a class="reference internal" href="constbitarray.html#bitstring.Bits.uint" title="bitstring.Bits.uint"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal"><span class="pre">uint</span></code></a> property.</p>
<div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">uint</span>
<span class="go">283</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">uint</span>
<span class="go">7</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>For byte-wise big-endian, little-endian and native-endian interpretations use <a class="reference internal" href="constbitarray.html#bitstring.Bits.uintbe" title="bitstring.Bits.uintbe"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal"><span class="pre">uintbe</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="constbitarray.html#bitstring.Bits.uintle" title="bitstring.Bits.uintle"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal"><span class="pre">uintle</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="constbitarray.html#bitstring.Bits.uintne" title="bitstring.Bits.uintne"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal"><span class="pre">uintne</span></code></a> respectively. These will raise a <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code> if the bitstring is not a whole number of bytes long.</p>
<div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">BitArray</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'0x000001'</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">uint</span> <span class="c1"># bit-wise big-endian</span>
<span class="go">1</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">uintbe</span> <span class="c1"># byte-wise big-endian</span>
<span class="go">1</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">uintle</span> <span class="c1"># byte-wise little-endian</span>
<span class="go">65536</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">uintne</span> <span class="c1"># byte-wise native-endian (will be 1 on a big-endian platform!)</span>
<span class="go">65536</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="int-intbe-intle-intne">
<h2>int / intbe / intle / intne<a class="headerlink" href="#int-intbe-intle-intne" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
<p>For a two’s complement interpretation as a base-2 signed integer use the <a class="reference internal" href="constbitarray.html#bitstring.Bits.int" title="bitstring.Bits.int"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> property. If the first bit of the bitstring is zero then the <a class="reference internal" href="constbitarray.html#bitstring.Bits.int" title="bitstring.Bits.int"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="constbitarray.html#bitstring.Bits.uint" title="bitstring.Bits.uint"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal"><span class="pre">uint</span></code></a> interpretations will be equal, otherwise the <a class="reference internal" href="constbitarray.html#bitstring.Bits.int" title="bitstring.Bits.int"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> will represent a negative number.</p>
<div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">int</span>
<span class="go">283</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">b</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">int</span>
<span class="go">-1</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>For byte-wise big, little and native endian signed integer interpretations use <a class="reference internal" href="constbitarray.html#bitstring.Bits.intbe" title="bitstring.Bits.intbe"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal"><span class="pre">intbe</span></code></a>, <a class="reference internal" href="constbitarray.html#bitstring.Bits.intle" title="bitstring.Bits.intle"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal"><span class="pre">intle</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="constbitarray.html#bitstring.Bits.intne" title="bitstring.Bits.intne"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal"><span class="pre">intne</span></code></a> respectively. These work in the same manner as their unsigned counterparts described above.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="float-floatbe-floatle-floatne">
<h2>float / floatbe / floatle / floatne<a class="headerlink" href="#float-floatbe-floatle-floatne" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
<p>For a floating point interpretation use the <a class="reference internal" href="constbitarray.html#bitstring.Bits.float" title="bitstring.Bits.float"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> property. This uses your machine’s underlying floating point representation and will only work if the bitstring is 32 or 64 bits long.</p>
<p>Different endiannesses are provided via <a class="reference internal" href="constbitarray.html#bitstring.Bits.floatle" title="bitstring.Bits.floatle"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal"><span class="pre">floatle</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="constbitarray.html#bitstring.Bits.floatne" title="bitstring.Bits.floatne"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal"><span class="pre">floatne</span></code></a>. Note that as floating point interpretations are only valid on whole-byte bitstrings there is no difference between the bit-wise big-endian <a class="reference internal" href="constbitarray.html#bitstring.Bits.float" title="bitstring.Bits.float"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal"><span class="pre">float</span></code></a> and the byte-wise big-endian <a class="reference internal" href="constbitarray.html#bitstring.Bits.floatbe" title="bitstring.Bits.floatbe"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal"><span class="pre">floatbe</span></code></a>.</p>
<p>Note also that standard floating point numbers in Python are stored in 64 bits, so use this size if you wish to avoid rounding errors.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="bytes">
<h2>bytes<a class="headerlink" href="#bytes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
<p>A common need is to retrieve the raw bytes from a bitstring for further processing or for writing to a file. For this use the <a class="reference internal" href="constbitarray.html#bitstring.Bits.bytes" title="bitstring.Bits.bytes"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> interpretation, which returns a <code class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code> object (which is equivalent to an ordinary <code class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">str</span></code> in Python 2.6/2.7).</p>
<p>If the length of the bitstring isn’t a multiple of eight then a <code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal"><span class="pre">ValueError</span></code> will be raised. This is because there isn’t an unequivocal representation as <code class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code>. You may prefer to use the method <a class="reference internal" href="constbitarray.html#bitstring.Bits.tobytes" title="bitstring.Bits.tobytes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal"><span class="pre">tobytes</span></code></a> as this will be pad with between one and seven zero bits up to a byte boundary if neccessary.</p>
<div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'somefile'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'wb'</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">tobytes</span><span class="p">())</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'anotherfile'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'wb'</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="s1">'0x0'</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bytes</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">a1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">BitArray</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">'somefile'</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">a1</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hex</span>
<span class="go">'1230'</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">a2</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">BitArray</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">filename</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">'anotherfile'</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">a2</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">hex</span>
<span class="go">'0123'</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>Note that the <a class="reference internal" href="constbitarray.html#bitstring.Bits.tobytes" title="bitstring.Bits.tobytes"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal"><span class="pre">tobytes</span></code></a> method automatically padded with four zero bits at the end, whereas for the other example we explicitly padded at the start to byte align before using the <a class="reference internal" href="constbitarray.html#bitstring.Bits.bytes" title="bitstring.Bits.bytes"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal"><span class="pre">bytes</span></code></a> property.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="ue">
<h2>ue<a class="headerlink" href="#ue" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="constbitarray.html#bitstring.Bits.ue" title="bitstring.Bits.ue"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal"><span class="pre">ue</span></code></a> property interprets the bitstring as a single unsigned exponential-Golomb code and returns an integer. If the bitstring is not exactly one code then an <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#bitstring.InterpretError" title="bitstring.InterpretError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal"><span class="pre">InterpretError</span></code></a> is raised instead. If you instead wish to read the next bits in the stream and interpret them as a code use the read function with a <code class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">ue</span></code> format string. See <a class="reference internal" href="exp-golomb.html#exp-golomb"><span>Exponential-Golomb Codes</span></a> for a short explanation of this type of integer representation.</p>
<div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">BitArray</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ue</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">12</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bin</span>
<span class="go">'0001101'</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">BitArray</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ue</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">))</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="k">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">readlist</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'2*ue'</span><span class="p">))</span>
<span class="go">[12, 3]</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="se">
<h2>se<a class="headerlink" href="#se" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="constbitarray.html#bitstring.Bits.se" title="bitstring.Bits.se"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal"><span class="pre">se</span></code></a> property does much the same as <code class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">ue</span></code> and the provisos there all apply. The obvious difference is that it interprets the bitstring as a signed exponential-Golomb rather than unsigned - see <a class="reference internal" href="exp-golomb.html#exp-golomb"><span>Exponential-Golomb Codes</span></a> for more information.</p>
<div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">BitArray</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'0x164b'</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">se</span>
<span class="go">InterpretError: BitArray, is not a single exponential-Golomb code.</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pos</span> <span class="o"><</span> <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">length</span><span class="p">:</span>
<span class="gp">... </span> <span class="k">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'se'</span><span class="p">))</span>
<span class="go">-5</span>
<span class="go">2</span>
<span class="go">0</span>
<span class="go">-1</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="uie-sie">
<h2>uie / sie<a class="headerlink" href="#uie-sie" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
<p>A slightly different type, interleaved exponential-Golomb codes are also supported. The principles are the same as with <code class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">ue</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">se</span></code> - see <a class="reference internal" href="exp-golomb.html#exp-golomb"><span>Exponential-Golomb Codes</span></a> for detail of the differences.</p>
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